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<TITLE>CLHS: Section 4.3.7</TITLE>
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<H1><A REV=MADE HREF="http://www.lispworks.com/"><IMG WIDTH=80 HEIGHT=65 ALT="[LISPWORKS]" SRC="../Graphics/LWSmall.gif" ALIGN=Bottom></A><A REL=TOP HREF="../Front/index.htm"><IMG WIDTH=237 HEIGHT=65 ALT="[Common Lisp HyperSpec (TM)]" SRC="../Graphics/CLHS_Sm.gif" ALIGN=Bottom></A> <A REL=PREV HREF="04_cfc.htm"><IMG WIDTH=40 HEIGHT=40 ALT="[Previous]" SRC="../Graphics/Prev.gif" ALIGN=Bottom></A><A REL=UP HREF="04_c.htm"><IMG WIDTH=40 HEIGHT=40 ALT="[Up]" SRC="../Graphics/Up.gif" ALIGN=Bottom></A><A REL=NEXT HREF="c_types_.htm"><IMG WIDTH=40 HEIGHT=40 ALT="[Next]" SRC="../Graphics/Next.gif" ALIGN=Bottom></A></H1>
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<H2>
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4.3.7 Integrating Types and Classes</H2> <P>
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The object system maps the space of <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>classes</I></A> into the space of <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_t.htm#type"><I>types</I></A>. Every <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A> that has a proper name has a corresponding <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_t.htm#type"><I>type</I></A> with the same <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_n.htm#name"><I>name</I></A>. <P>
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The proper name of every <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A> is a valid <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_t.htm#type_specifier"><I>type specifier</I></A>. In addition, every <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_o.htm#object"><I>object</I></A> is a valid <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_t.htm#type_specifier"><I>type specifier</I></A>. Thus the expression <TT>(typep </TT><I>object</I><TT> </TT><I>class</I><TT>)</TT> evaluates to <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_t.htm#true"><I>true</I></A> if the <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A> of <I>object</I> is <I>class</I> itself or a <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_s.htm#subclass"><I>subclass</I></A> of <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A>. The evaluation of the expression <TT>(subtypep class1 class2)</TT> returns the values <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_t.htm#true"><I>true</I></A> and <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_t.htm#true"><I>true</I></A> if <TT>class1</TT> is a subclass of <TT>class2</TT> or if they are the same <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A>; otherwise it returns the values <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_f.htm#false"><I>false</I></A> and <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_t.htm#true"><I>true</I></A>. If I is an <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_i.htm#instance"><I>instance</I></A> of some <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A> C named S and C is an <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_i.htm#instance"><I>instance</I></A> of <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_std_cl.htm#standard-class"><B>standard-class</B></A>, the evaluation of the expression <TT>(type-of I)</TT> returns S if S is the <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_p.htm#proper_name"><I>proper name</I></A> of C; otherwise, it returns C. <P>
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Because the names of <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>classes</I></A> and <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_o.htm#object"><I>objects</I></A> are <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_t.htm#type_specifier"><I>type specifiers</I></A>, they may be used in the special form <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="s_the.htm#the"><B>the</B></A> and in type declarations. <P>
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Many but not all of the predefined <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_t.htm#type_specifier"><I>type specifiers</I></A> have a corresponding <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A> with the same proper name as the <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_t.htm#type"><I>type</I></A>. These type specifiers are listed in <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="#classtypecorrespondence">Figure 4-8</A>. For example, the <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_t.htm#type"><I>type</I></A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_array.htm#array"><B>array</B></A> has a corresponding <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A> named <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_array.htm#array"><B>array</B></A>. No <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_t.htm#type_specifier"><I>type specifier</I></A> that is a list, such as <TT>(vector double-float 100)</TT>, has a corresponding <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A>. The <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_o.htm#operator"><I>operator</I></A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="m_deftp.htm#deftype"><B>deftype</B></A> does not create any <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>classes</I></A>. <P>
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Each <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A> that corresponds to a predefined <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_t.htm#type_specifier"><I>type specifier</I></A> can be implemented in one of three ways, at the discretion of each implementation. It can be a <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_s.htm#standard_class"><I>standard class</I></A>, a <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_s.htm#structure_class"><I>structure class</I></A>, or a <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_s.htm#system_class"><I>system class</I></A>. <P>
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A <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_b.htm#built-in_class"><I>built-in class</I></A> is one whose <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_g.htm#generalized_instance"><I>generalized instances</I></A> have restricted capabilities or special representations. Attempting to use <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="m_defcla.htm#defclass"><B>defclass</B></A> to define <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_s.htm#subclass"><I>subclasses</I></A> of a <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_built_.htm#built-in-class"><B>built-in-class</B></A> signals an error. Calling <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="f_mk_ins.htm#make-instance"><B>make-instance</B></A> to create a <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_g.htm#generalized_instance"><I>generalized instance</I></A> of a <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_b.htm#built-in_class"><I>built-in class</I></A> signals an error. Calling <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="f_slt_va.htm#slot-value"><B>slot-value</B></A> on a <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_g.htm#generalized_instance"><I>generalized instance</I></A> of a <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_b.htm#built-in_class"><I>built-in class</I></A> signals an error. Redefining a <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_b.htm#built-in_class"><I>built-in class</I></A> or using <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="f_chg_cl.htm#change-class"><B>change-class</B></A> to change the <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A> of an <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_o.htm#object"><I>object</I></A> to or from a <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_b.htm#built-in_class"><I>built-in class</I></A> signals an error. However, <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_b.htm#built-in_class"><I>built-in classes</I></A> can be used as <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_p.htm#parameter_specializer"><I>parameter specializers</I></A> in <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_m.htm#method"><I>methods</I></A>. <P>
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It is possible to determine whether a <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A> is a <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_b.htm#built-in_class"><I>built-in class</I></A> by checking the <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_m.htm#metaclass"><I>metaclass</I></A>. A <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_s.htm#standard_class"><I>standard class</I></A> is an <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_i.htm#instance"><I>instance</I></A> of the <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_std_cl.htm#standard-class"><B>standard-class</B></A>, a <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_b.htm#built-in_class"><I>built-in class</I></A> is an <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_i.htm#instance"><I>instance</I></A> of the <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_built_.htm#built-in-class"><B>built-in-class</B></A>, and a <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_s.htm#structure_class"><I>structure class</I></A> is an <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_i.htm#instance"><I>instance</I></A> of the <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_stu_cl.htm#structure-class"><B>structure-class</B></A>. <P>
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Each <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_s.htm#structure"><I>structure</I></A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_t.htm#type"><I>type</I></A> created by <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="m_defstr.htm#defstruct"><B>defstruct</B></A> without using the <TT>:type</TT> option has a corresponding <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A>. This <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A> is a <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_g.htm#generalized_instance"><I>generalized instance</I></A> of the <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_stu_cl.htm#structure-class"><B>structure-class</B></A>. The <TT>:include</TT> option of <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="m_defstr.htm#defstruct"><B>defstruct</B></A> creates a direct <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_s.htm#subclass"><I>subclass</I></A> of the <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A> that corresponds to the included <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_s.htm#structure"><I>structure</I></A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_t.htm#type"><I>type</I></A>. <P>
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It is <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_i.htm#implementation-dependent"><I>implementation-dependent</I></A> whether <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_s.htm#slot"><I>slots</I></A> are involved in the operation of <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_f.htm#function"><I>functions</I></A> defined in this specification on <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_i.htm#instance"><I>instances</I></A> of <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>classes</I></A> defined in this specification, except when <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_s.htm#slot"><I>slots</I></A> are explicitly defined by this specification. <P>
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If in a particular <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_i.htm#implementation"><I>implementation</I></A> a <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A> defined in this specification has <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_s.htm#slot"><I>slots</I></A> that are not defined by this specfication, the names of these <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_s.htm#slot"><I>slots</I></A> must not be <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_e.htm#external_symbol"><I>external symbols</I></A> of <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_p.htm#package"><I>packages</I></A> defined in this specification nor otherwise <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_a.htm#accessible"><I>accessible</I></A> in the <TT>CL-USER</TT> package. <P>
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The purpose of specifying that many of the standard <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_t.htm#type_specifier"><I>type specifiers</I></A> have a corresponding <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A> is to enable users to write <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_m.htm#method"><I>methods</I></A> that discriminate on these <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_t.htm#type"><I>types</I></A>. <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_m.htm#method"><I>Method</I></A> selection requires that a <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class_precedence_list"><I>class precedence list</I></A> can be determined for each <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A>. <P>
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The hierarchical relationships among the <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_t.htm#type_specifier"><I>type specifiers</I></A> are mirrored by relationships among the <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>classes</I></A> corresponding to those <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_t.htm#type"><I>types</I></A>. <P>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="#classtypecorrespondence">Figure 4-8</A> lists the set of <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>classes</I></A> that correspond to predefined <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_t.htm#type_specifier"><I>type specifiers</I></A>. <P>
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<A NAME="classtypecorrespondence"> <PRE>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_arithm.htm#arithmetic-error">arithmetic-error</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_generi.htm#generic-function">generic-function</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_smp_er.htm#simple-error">simple-error</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_array.htm#array">array</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_hash_t.htm#hash-table">hash-table</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_smp_tp.htm#simple-type-error">simple-type-error</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_bt_vec.htm#bit-vector">bit-vector</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_intege.htm#integer">integer</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_smp_wa.htm#simple-warning">simple-warning</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_broadc.htm#broadcast-stream">broadcast-stream</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="a_list.htm#list">list</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_std_cl.htm#standard-class">standard-class</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_built_.htm#built-in-class">built-in-class</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="a_logica.htm#logical-pathname">logical-pathname</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_std_ge.htm#standard-generic-function">standard-generic-function</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_cell_e.htm#cell-error">cell-error</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_method.htm#method">method</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_std_me.htm#standard-method">standard-method</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="a_ch.htm#character">character</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="a_method.htm#method-combination">method-combination</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_std_ob.htm#standard-object">standard-object</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_class.htm#class">class</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="a_null.htm#null">null</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_storag.htm#storage-condition">storage-condition</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="a_comple.htm#complex">complex</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_number.htm#number">number</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_stream.htm#stream">stream</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_concat.htm#concatenated-stream">concatenated-stream</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_pkg.htm#package">package</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_stm_er.htm#stream-error">stream-error</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_cnd.htm#condition">condition</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_pkg_er.htm#package-error">package-error</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="a_string.htm#string">string</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="a_cons.htm#cons">cons</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_parse_.htm#parse-error">parse-error</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_stg_st.htm#string-stream">string-stream</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_contro.htm#control-error">control-error</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="a_pn.htm#pathname">pathname</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_stu_cl.htm#structure-class">structure-class</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_divisi.htm#division-by-zero">division-by-zero</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_pr_not.htm#print-not-readable">print-not-readable</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_stu_ob.htm#structure-object">structure-object</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_echo_s.htm#echo-stream">echo-stream</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_progra.htm#program-error">program-error</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_style_.htm#style-warning">style-warning</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_end_of.htm#end-of-file">end-of-file</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_rnd_st.htm#random-state">random-state</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_symbol.htm#symbol">symbol</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="a_error.htm#error">error</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_ratio.htm#ratio">ratio</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_syn_st.htm#synonym-stream">synonym-stream</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_file_e.htm#file-error">file-error</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="a_ration.htm#rational">rational</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="a_t.htm#t">t</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_file_s.htm#file-stream">file-stream</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_rder_e.htm#reader-error">reader-error</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_two_wa.htm#two-way-stream">two-way-stream</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="a_float.htm#float">float</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_rdtabl.htm#readtable">readtable</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_tp_err.htm#type-error">type-error</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_floa_1.htm#floating-point-inexact">floating-point-inexact</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_real.htm#real">real</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_unboun.htm#unbound-slot">unbound-slot</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_floati.htm#floating-point-invalid-operation">floating-point-invalid-operation</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_rst.htm#restart">restart</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_unbo_1.htm#unbound-variable">unbound-variable</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_floa_2.htm#floating-point-overflow">floating-point-overflow</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_seq.htm#sequence">sequence</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_undefi.htm#undefined-function">undefined-function</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_floa_3.htm#floating-point-underflow">floating-point-underflow</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_seriou.htm#serious-condition">serious-condition</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="a_vector.htm#vector">vector</A>
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<A REL=DEFINITION HREF="a_fn.htm#function">function</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_smp_cn.htm#simple-condition">simple-condition</A> <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="e_warnin.htm#warning">warning</A>
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</PRE>
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<P><B>Figure 4-8. Classes that correspond to pre-defined type specifiers</B></A> <P>
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The <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class_precedence_list"><I>class precedence list</I></A> information specified in the entries for each of these <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>classes</I></A> are those that are required by the object system. <P>
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Individual implementations may be extended to define other type specifiers to have a corresponding <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A>. Individual implementations may be extended to add other <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_s.htm#subclass"><I>subclass</I></A> relationships and to add other <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_e.htm#element"><I>elements</I></A> to the <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class_precedence_list"><I>class precedence lists</I></A> as long as they do not violate the type relationships and disjointness requirements specified by this standard. A standard <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>class</I></A> defined with no direct <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_s.htm#superclass"><I>superclasses</I></A> is guaranteed to be disjoint from all of the <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="26_glo_c.htm#class"><I>classes</I></A> in the table, except for the class named <A REL=DEFINITION HREF="t_t.htm#t"><B>t</B></A>. <P>
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<P><HR>The following <A REL=META HREF="../Front/X3J13Iss.htm">X3J13 cleanup issues</A>, <I>not part of the specification</I>, apply to this section:<P><UL><LI> <A REL=CHILD HREF="../Issues/iss290.htm">REAL-NUMBER-TYPE:X3J13-MAR-89</A><LI> <A REL=CHILD HREF="../Issues/iss077.htm">CONDITION-SLOTS:HIDDEN</A><LI> <A REL=CHILD HREF="../Issues/iss241.htm">METACLASS-OF-SYSTEM-CLASS:UNSPECIFIED</A><P></UL><HR>
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